1. Nouns
1.0. Stem
1.1. Cases
1.2. Number
● There is no gender or class in Laz.
● Verbal nouns are explained in chapter 15. Adjectives (→ 3.), participles (→ 14.) and adnominal clauses (→ 17.) can also be used as noun (or nominal clause).
● See also derivational affixes forming nouns, adjectives and adverbs (→ 20.).
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1.0. Stem
1.0.1. Consonant-final stem
1.0.2. Vowel-final stem
1.0.3. How to recognize the stem ?
● The stems of nouns are divided into two groups according to their last phoneme. Rules are not the same for two groups concerning the morphology of suffixes and the accent.
■ We begin the description of accent in this subject.
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1.0.1. Consonant-final stem
m3xul- pear, pear tree
oxor- home, house
oncğor- shame
■ In all dialects, accented and not accented vowels have the same quality.
The accent in Laz is much less marked than in English, German, Italian or Russian.
■ The naked consonant-final stem of noun has accent on the ultimate syllable of the stem. But some suffixes may change the place of accent.
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1.0.2. Vowel-final stem
ndğa- day
cuma- brother
xe- hand
ti- (1) head
yoxo- ~ coxo- (2) name
mç’apu- ~ mky’apu- (2) jackal
(1) All vowel-final stems that end by -i are monosyllabic. It seems to us that all those which finish by -e are also monosyllabic. But we cannot affirm it in the present stage of research.
(2) yoxo-, mç’apu- in western dialects; coxo-, mky’apu- in central and eastern dialects.
■ Following accentuation rules are observed concerning the naked vowel-final stem of noun. Some suffixes may change the place of accent.
# If the stem is monosyllabic, accent is on the unique syllable of the stem.
# If the stem is polysyllabic, accent is on the penultimate syllable of the stem.
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1.0.3. How to recognize the stem ?
The stem is observed easily before plural markers and most of derivational suffixes. (Vowel-final stems loose the final vowel before a small number of suffixes. → 3.3. and 20.) Naked stem is also used as first constituent of compound words.
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1.0.3.1. Before suffix
m3xul-epe : pears, pear trees (plural)
ber-oba : childhood
■ If the suffixe is polysyllabic as in these examples, the place of accent moves to the penultimate syllable of the suffixe.
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1.0.3.2. As first constituent of compound word
m3xul-o3’ilaşe : instrument used for plucking off pears from high branches
oxor-mance : owner of a house, landlord
■ If the second constituent is a polysyllabic word as in these examples, the first constituent appears in form of naked stem. The accent is on the second constituent.
■ If the second constituent is a monosyllabic word with vowel-final stem as shown below, the first constituent with consonant-final stem does not appear in form of naked stem but of postpositional case (→1.1.1.2.). Accent is on the ultimate syllable of the stem (= penultimate syllable of the compound word).
m3xuli-mca (PZ)(ÇM) : pear tree [mca/ nca = tree]
m3xuli-nca (AŞ) : (1)
ntxiri-mca (PZ)(ÇM) : hazelnut tree
ntxiri-nca (AŞ) : (2)
(1) m3xulişi-nca, in the dialects of Fındıklı, Arhavi and Hopa
(2) ntxi(r)işi-nca, in the dialects of Fındıklı, Arhavi and Hopa
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1.1. Cases
1.1.1. Basic Cases
1.1.1.1. Absolutive
1.1.1.2. Postpositional
1.1.1.3. Ergative
1.1.1.4. Dative
1.1.1.5. Genitive
1.1.1.6. Directive
1.1.1.7. Ablative
1.1.1.8. Locative
1.1.1.9. Instrumental
1.1.2. Fused cases
1.1.2.1. Fused oblique case
1.1.2.2. Ambidirective
1.1.3. Declension Table
● There is no accusative case in Laz as it is generally observed in ergative languages.
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1.1.1. Basic cases
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1.1.1.1. Absolutive
The Laz dialects are divided into two groups according to the morphology of the absolutive case of nouns.
A group : the absolutive case may end with a consonant.
B group : the absolutive case ends always with a vowel.
A group dialects are distributed in various places forming large language islands (for example villages of Mek’alesk’irit, Ğvant, Xincip’ici, M3’anu etc in Çamlıhemşin, villages of Napşit, Sidere, Pilarget etc in Arhavi).
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1.1.1.1.1. Morphology
[1] If the stem is consonant-final, the formation of absolutive case varies according to the dialects.
A group: {naked stem = absolutive}or{stem + -i ~ -e = absolutive}
B group: {stem + -i ~ -e = absolutive}
[in A group dialects] [in B group dialects]
m3xul m3xuli pear, pear tree
oxor oxori home, house
oncğor oncğore shame
[Some words have the same form in both groups]
xinci bridge
badi old man
■ The absolutive suffixes (-i, -e) do not change the place of accent.
[2] If the stem is vowel-final, {stem = absolutive} in all dialects.
cuma brother
xe hand
ti head
yoxo ~ coxo name
mç’apu ~ mky’apu (1) jackal
(1) mç’apu in western dialects; mky’apu in central and eastern dialects.
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1.1.1.1.2. Use
The subject of the verb of existence, the subject of the verb of presence, the subject of “intransitive verbs with absolutive subject”, the direct object of actional transitive verbs etc are in absolutive case.
All Laz take spontaneously the absolutive case of noun without plural marker as its representative form.
The terminology commonly used for the description of ergative languages is inadequate for the Laz language because of its specific structure. An original terminology is proposed in this study.
For more details, see the chapter 11 and the following chapters.
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1.1.1.2. Postpositional
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1.1.1.2.1. Morphology
The postpositional case is formed in the same way in all Laz dialects.
[1] Consonant-final stem: {stem + -i ~ -e = postpositional}
[2] Vowel-final stem: {naked stem = postpositional}
● In the B group dialects, there is no morphological difference between absolutive and postpositional cases of nouns. (The two cases of pronouns with consonant-final stem are different. See the Chapter 2.)
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1.1.1.2.2. Use
Nouns are in postpositional case before some postpositions like şeni (for), st’er(i) ~ ster(i) ~ ste(y)i (like) etc. On the other hand the case markers of noun (ergative, dative, locative etc) are suffixed to the postpositional form.
m3xuli şeni for the pear, for the pear tree
oxori şeni for the house
k’oçi st’er(i) like a man
~ k’oçi ster(i) ~ k’oçi ste(y)i
[There is no article in Laz, and the plural is not always marked. Therefore it is impossible to distinguish among “for a pear”, “for the pear”, “for pears” and “for the pears” without context.]
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1.1.1.3. Ergative
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1.1.1.3.1. Morphology
[The regional variants are shown in this study always in geographic order from the west to the east.]
(PZ) In the dialects of Pazar {postpositional + -k ~ -ko ~ -ku = ergative}
mç’apuk ~ mç’apuko ~ mç’apuku : jackal
m3xulik ~ m3xuliko ~ m3xuliku : pear, pear tree
The form ending by “-k” will be shown in this study as representative dative case of the Pazar Laz dialects.
(ÇM)(AŞ) In the dialects of Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen, there is no suffix marking the ergative case. See 1.1.2.1. Neutralized case.
(Centre, East) In the dialects of Fındıklı, Arhavi, Hopa and Çxala, {postpositional + -k = ergative}
mky’apuk : jackal
m3xulik : pear, pear tree
■ The ergative suffix does not change the place of accent.
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1.1.1.3.2. Use
The subject of “intransitive verbs with ergative subject” (→12.5.), the subject of actional transitive verbs and the cause of action of causative verbs are in ergative case.
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1.1.1.4. Dative
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1.1.1.4.1. Morphology
(PZ) In the dialects of Pazar {postpositional + -s ~ -so ~ -su = dative}
mç’apus ~ mç’apuso ~ mç’apusu : jackal
m3xulis ~ m3xuliso ~ m3xulisu : pear, pear tree
● The variants -s ~ -so ~ -su are often replaced with -y especially after vowel stem ending by -a. (Example : çonas → çonay : light, beloved)
The form ending by “-s” will be shown in this study as representative dative case of Pazar Laz dialects.
(ÇM)(AŞ) In the dialects of Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen, there is no suffix that marks the dative case. See 1.1.2.1. Fused oblique case.
(Centre, East) In the dialects of Fındıklı, Arhavi, Hopa and Çxala {postpositional + -z ~ -s (1) = dative}
mky’apuz ~ mky’pus : jackal
m3xuliz ~ m3xulis : pear, pear tree
(1) The form -so is sometimes observed in poetry.
■ The dative suffix does not change the place of accent.
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1.1.1.4.2. Use
The indirect object of transitive or di-transitive verbs, the subject of verbs in potential mood (1), the subject of verbs in experiential mood (2), the subject of evolutive state verbs (→ 12.4.) etc are in dative case.
●●● (1)(2) In the dialects of Fındıklı and Arhavi-west, the verb ulun and all verbs deriving from it have the subject in the absolutive case in potential and experiential moods.
●●● Dative and locative cases are homophonous in Laz. They are defined as follows in this study : the element of sentence (= subject or complement) having the case suffix -s/-z is in the dative case if the verb agrees with it in person ; it is in the locative case if the verb does not agree with it.
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1.1.1.5. Genitive
In all dialects {postpositional + -ş ~ -şi = genitive}
m3xuliş ~ m3xulişi of pear, of pear tree
oxoriş ~ oxorişi of house
badiş ~ badişi of old man
nanaş ~ nanaşi mother’s
noğaş ~ noğaşi of shopping street
In the dialects of Çxala, the genitive marker has also the variant {-(y)i} after vowel other than /i/.
nana(y)i mother’s
noğa(y)i of shopping street
■ In genitive, accent moves to the syllable preceeding the case suffix (m3xuliş, m3xulişi; nanaş, nanaşi, noğaş, noğaşi).
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1.1.1.6. Directive
(West) In the dialects of Pazar, Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen, directive and ablative cases are morphologically idendical. See the subject of Ambidirective (→1.1.2.2.).
(Centre, East) In central and eastern dialects {postpositional + -şa = directive}
m3xulişa to the pear, to the pear tree
oxorişa to the house
noğaşa to the shopping street
■ The place of accent in directive noun is the same as in genitive (m3xulişa, oxorişa; noğaşa, nanaşa).
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1.1.1.7. Ablative
(West) For the western dialects, see Ambidirective (→ 1.1.2.2.).
(Centre, East) In central and eastern dialects {postpositional + -şe ~ -şen = ablative}
m3xulişe ~ m3xulişen from pear (tree)
oxorişe ~ oxorişen from the house
noğaşe ~ noğaşen from the shopping street
■ The place of accent in ablative noun is the same as in genitive and directive; m3xulişe(n), oxorişe(n); noğaşe(n), nanaşe(n).
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1.1.1.8. Locative
●●● Dative and locative cases are homophonous in Laz. They are defined as follows in this study : the element of sentence (= subject or complement) having the case suffix -s/-z is in the dative case if the verb agrees with it in person ; it is in the locative case if the verb does not agree with it.
m3xulis ~ m3xuliz in (on, at) the pear (tree)
oxoris ~ oxoriz in the house, at home
noğas ~ noğaz in (on, at) the shopping street
■ (ÇM)(AŞ) For the dialects of Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen, see the subject of Fused oblique case (→ 1.1.2.1.).
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1.1.1.9. Instrumental
In all dialects {postpositional + -te ~ -ten = instrumental}
xamite ~ xamiten with knife
bergite ~ bergiten with hoe, with digger
k’uçxete ~ k’uçxeten on foot
derdite ~ derditen with worry
mskalate ~ mskalaten with ladder, with stairs
3’i3’ilate ~ 3’i3’ilaten with a snake
■ The place of accent in instrumental noun is the same as in genitive, directive and ablative; xamite(n), bergite(n), k’uçxete(n), derdite(n); mskalate(n), 3’i3’ilate(n).
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1.1.2. Fused cases
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1.1.2.1. Fused oblique case (ÇM)(AŞ)
In the dialects of Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen, -k, -s and -z are lost at the final. In consequence there is no morphological difference among postpositional, ergative, dative and locative cases. They form altogether a fused oblique case.
[1] consonant-final stem {stem + -i ~ -e = fused oblique case}
[2] vowel-final stem {naked stem = fused oblique case}
In A group dialects (which have absolutive case ending with a consonant), the dintinction between absolutive case and fused oblique case is regularly observed in nouns with consonant-final stem.
In B group dialects (which have only absolutive case ending with a vowel), this distinction is lost in all nouns.
But in all dialects of this region, the two cases of pronouns with consonant-final stem are clearly different (→ 2.4. and 2.5.).
The loss of ergative and dative suffixes in these dialects does not mean that they lost ergative and dative constructions. The verbs indicate the case (absolutive, ergative or dative) of subject and complement by their personal affixes, even if there are some exceptions.
In A group dialects
Absolutive Fused oblique case
m3xul m3xuli pear (tree)
oxor oxori house, home
noğa noğa shopping street
Aşela Aşela (female first name)
■ The accent of nouns in fused oblique case is always on the penultimate syllable: the last syllable of consonant-final stem, and the penultimate of vowel-final stem.
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1.1.2.2. Ambidirective (PZ)(ÇM)(AŞ)
In the dialects of Pazar, Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen, there is no morphological difference between directive and ablative cases. However the ambidirective case is not a cause of ambiguity because, in Laz language, a great number of preverbs (→ 11.7., 19.) indicate minutely the direction of action.
(PZ-west) In Pazar-west {postpositional + -şe = ambidirective}
m3xulişe to pear (tree) ~ from pear (tree)
oxorişe to house, to home ~ from house, from home
noğaşe to shopping street ~ from shopping street
(PZ-east)(ÇM)(AŞ) In Pazar-east, Çamlıhemşin and Ardeşen,
{postpositional + -şa = ambidirective}
m3xulişa to pear (tree) ~ from pear (tree)
oxorişa to house, to home ~ from house, from home
noğaşa to shopping street ~ from shopping street
■ The accent of nouns in ambidirective case is the same as in genitive and instrumental cases.
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1.1.3. Declension table
(PZ) = Pazar, (ÇM) = Çamlıhemşin, (AŞ) = Ardeşen, (FN) = Fındıklı, (AH) = Arhavi, (HP) = Hopa, (ÇX) = Çxala
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1.1.3.1. Consonant-final stem: m3xul- (pear)
|
PZ-west |
PZ-east |
ÇM, AŞ |
AŞ-east |
FN |
AH |
HP, ÇX |
stem |
m3xul- |
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absolut. |
m3xul ~ m3xuli |
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postpos. |
m3xuli |
fused oblique case m3xuli |
m3xuli |
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ergative |
m3xulik |
m3xulik |
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dat. (*) |
m3xulis |
m3xuliz ~ m3xulis |
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genitive |
m3xulişi ~ m3xuliş |
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directive |
ambidir. c. m3xulişe |
ambidirective case m3xulişa |
m3xulişa |
m3xulişe |
m3xulişa |
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ablative |
m3xulişe |
m3xulişen |
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loc. (*) |
m3xulis |
m3xuli |
m3xuliz ~ m3xulis |
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instr. |
m3xulite |
m3xuliten |
According to Sedat Alptekin, native of Ardeşen-Ortaalan, “oppostion exists between directive and ablative cases in the dialects of Ortaalan and its neighbourhood”. As all informations are not concordant, further researches are necessary on the subject.
●●● (*) Dative and locative cases are homophonous in Laz. They are defined as follows in this study : the element of sentence (= subject or complement) having the case suffix -s/-z is in the dative case if the verb agrees with it in person ; it is in the locative case if the verb does not agree with it.
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1.1.3.2. Vowel- final stem: nca- (tree)
|
PZ-west |
PZ-east |
ÇM, AŞ |
AŞ-east |
FN |
AH |
HP |
ÇX |
stem |
nca- |
ca- |
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absolut. |
nca |
absolutive case and fused oblique case nca |
nca |
ca |
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postpos. |
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ergative |
ncak |
ncak |
cak |
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dative (*) |
ncas |
ncaz ~ ncas |
cas |
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genitive |
ncaşi ~ ncaş |
caşi/ cayi |
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directive |
ambidir. c. ncaşe |
ambidirective case ncaşa |
ncaşa |
ncaşe |
ncaşa |
caşa |
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ablative |
ncaşe |
ncaşen |
caşen |
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loc. (*) |
ncas |
nca |
ncaz ~ ncas |
cas |
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instr. |
ncate |
ncaten |
caten |
According to Sedat Alptekin, native of Ardeşen-Ortaalan, “oppostion exists between directive and ablative cases in the dialects of Ortaalan and its neighbourhood”. As all informations are not concordant, further researches are necessary on the subject.
●●● (*) Dative and locative cases are homophonous in Laz. They are defined as follows in this study : the element of sentence (= subject or complement) having the case suffix -s/-z is in the dative case if the verb agrees with it in person ; it is in the locative case if the verb does not agree with it.
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1.2. Number
1.2.1. Unmarked plural
1.2.2. Marked plural
1.2.3. Declension table of marked plural noun
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1.2.1. Unmarked plural
Nouns without number marker can be singular or plural in Laz. If the plural is marked, it indicates generally a group of humans, animals or things that do not require to be counted. In consequence, marked plural is rarely used after numeral adjectives.
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1.2.2. Marked plural
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1.2.2.1. After consonant-final stem
Plural suffix after consonant-final stem is -epe in all dialects.
Absolutive without number marker Absolutive of marked plural
m3xul ~ m3xuli pear(s), pear tree(s) m3xulepe pears, pear trees
oxor ~ oxori house(s) oxorepe houses
badi old man, old men badepe old men
bere child(ren) berepe children
■ Accent is on the penultimate syllable of the word, i.e. on the first syllable of the plural suffix.
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1.2.2.2. After vowel-final stem
There are two kinds of plural suffixes after vowel-final stem: -pe and -lepe.
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1.2.2.2.1. -pe
Absolutive without number marker Absolutive of marked plural
but’k’a (1) leaf, leaves but’k’ape leaves
xe hand(s) xepe hands
ti head(s) tipe heads
bozo girl(s) bozope girls
mç’apu (2) jackal(s) mç’apupe jackals
mky’apu (3) jackal(s) mky’apupe jackals
(1) Observed in Arhavi, Hopa and Çxala; pavri in Fındıklı and in western dialects.
(2) in western dialects
(3) in central and eastern dialects
■ Accent is on the penultimate syllable of the word, i.e. on the last syllable of the stem.
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1.2.2.2.2. -lepe
A part of vowel-final stems ending with -a take the other suffix.
Absolutive without number marker Absolutive of marked plural
cuma brother(s) cumalepe brothers
kva stone(s) kvalepe stones
nca tree(s) ncalepe trees
ndğa day(s) ndğalepe days
■ Accent is on the penultimate syllable of the word, i.e. on the first syllable of the plural suffix.
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1.2.3. Declension table of marked plural noun
Case markers are suffixed after plural marker. Marked plural nouns have only one kind of declension in a dialect.
(PZ) = Pazar, (ÇM) = Çamlıhemşin, (AŞ) = Ardeşen, (FN) = Fındıklı, (AH) = Arhavi, (HP) = Hopa, (ÇX) = Çxala
|
PZ-west |
PZ-east |
ÇM, AŞ |
AŞ-east |
FN |
AH |
HP, ÇX |
|
stem : m3xul- |
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aps. |
m3xulepe |
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pos. |
m3xulepe |
fused oblique case m3xulepe |
m3xulepe |
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erg. |
m3xulepek |
m3xulepek |
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dat. |
m3xulepes |
m3xulepez ~ m3xulepes |
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gen. |
m3xulepeşi ~ m3xulepeş |
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dir. |
ambidir. m3xulepeşe |
ambidirective m3xulepeşa |
m3xulepeşa |
m3xulepeşe |
m3xulepeşa |
||
abl. |
m3xulepeşe |
m3xulepeşen |
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loc. |
m3xulepes |
m3xulepe |
m3xulepez ~ m3xulepes |
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ins. |
m3xulepete |
m3xulepeten |
■ In genitive, directive, ablative and instrumental cases, accent is on the syllable preceeding the case suffix: m3xulepeş(i), m3xulepeşa, m3xulepeten ......